The influence of sexual orientation on vowel production. A. W., Gygax L., Garcia S., Bailey J. M. (2010). The original CMNI specified 11 norms: Winning, Emotional Control, Risk-Taking, Violence, Dominance, Playboy, Self-Reliance, Primacy of Work, Power over Women, Disdain for Homosexuality, and Pursuit of Status. Finally, participants were debriefed and thanked. This is in line with state-of-the-art conceptions in psychological assessment that consider every item in a scale to be a piece of puzzle and hence uncover a different detail of a somewhat bigger picture (Bhner, 2010). PDF Psychology of Men & Masculinities - American Psychological Association The participants recruited via the snowball technique were tested individually in their homes or offices (as they wished) using an iBook. Means were particularly close together for adjective-based gender-related instruments such as the GEPAQ. All items were suitable for factor analysis as indicated by item-specific KMO values >0.79 and moderate to high commonalities (0.570.88). We used a known-groups approach, with lesbians, bisexual, and straight women, to assess which of several gender-related scales is best in differentiating between these groups. Masculinity is, therefore, a social construction distinct from male biological sex. They found that the TMF was moderately connected to different aspects of social identification with one's own gender in the expected directions for men and women. Ronald F. Levant, EdD, discusses how cultural expectations of masculinity affect men's . What's the Problem with "Traditional Masculinity"? - Psychology Today Dots represent outlying values (1.5 SD above/below median). . Acquisition and significance of sex-typing and sex-role identity, Gender belief systems: homosexuality and the implicit inversion, Sex differences in attitudes toward homosexual persons, behaviors, and civil rights: A meta-analysis. In order to check for one-dimensionality of the TMF, an exploratory PAF with oblique rotation (oblimin: 0) was conducted for all 12 items. Connected to that, the incremental validity of the TMF for predicting women's sexual orientation was demonstrated in Study 1 only. Appendix A1 in Supplementary Material shows all items, both English translations and original German wordings. Learn more. One advantage of the TMF is that each of the mentioned scale dimensions is measured on a global level and not by various specific indicator items. Hence, the TMF showed higher convergent validity than the other gender-related scales. Each crucial, combined task consisted of four blocks of 62 trials. In contrast, regarding gender-role behavior and childhood behavior, expected differences between lesbians and straight women were obtained. Please react more slowly and more correctly.). The high test-retest reliability obtained over a 1-year period indicated stability rather than variance. The first item also correlated highly with the overall scale (r = 0.95), corroborating the decision to use only one item. What's the Problem with "Traditional Masculinity"? - Psychology Today A., Bailey J. M. (2011). For example, are self-ratings on the TMF related to biological markers of masculinity-femininity such as waist-to-hip ratio and finger length (i.e., two-digit-four-digit ratio)? TMF masculinity and femininity correlated in the expected direction with all other measures except for BSRI masculinity. The TMF showed sufficient reliabilities for women and men. Moreover, in spite of its brevity, the TMF showed high internal consistencies across all studies as well as satisfactory test-retest reliability (in a sample of men). Put another way, you cannot be a "good man" without being "good at being a man.". government site. We define "traditional masculinity" and "traditional femininity" as relatively enduring characteristics encompassing traits, appearances, interests, and behaviors that have traditionally been considered relatively more typical of women and men, respectively (adapting the definitions provided by Constantinople, 1973 ). The current research was partially funded by grants from the German Research Foundation (DFG, STE 938/10-2, FOR 1097, and STE 938/11-1). Psychological researchers have been measuring and studying masculinity for decades. Toxic masculinity isn't just about behaving like a man. However, commonalities of several of them were too low for conducting confirmatory factor analyses. All items were suitable for factor analysis because of item-specific KMO values >0.69 and moderate to high commonalities (0.420.69). Moreover, it is also consistent with Constantinople's (1973) view that the masculinity/femininity-construct is captured best when gender role adoption, preference, and identity are measured in conjunction. On the BSRI, no significant differences between groups were obtained. According to the intercorrelation of TMF scores at first and second measurement, 1-year reliability for the TMF was 0.75 and higher than for the GEPAQ-F, though inter-correlations for the GEPAQ-M were even higher than for the TMF. The TMF was used with masculinity and femininity as two unipolar dimensions (Study 1: 1, not at all masculine, to 7, very masculine, and 1, not at all feminine, to 7, very feminine) vs. one bipolar dimension (pilot study, Study 2; 1, very masculine, to 7, very feminine) in order to check for dimensionality. In addition, the lack of emotional regulation as well as a poor impulse control have been related to aggression and, in particular, with reactive and proactive aggression. While masculine ideology can vary by culture, TMI as commonly seen in the U.S. and endorsed by "white, Western, heterosexual" culture (Levant & Powell . In detail, a KMO criterion of 0.76 indicated that the sample was appropriate. For the present purposes it is important to note that if masculinity and femininity are directly measured they should load on one bipolar masculinity-femininity dimension. Men who place im-portance on conforming to traditional masculinity ideology may experience psychological distress when they fail to meet male role Traditional Masculinity: Modern Repercussions For Men - IMSA First, we conducted an item analysis and a factor analysis. (2014). We expected lesbians to describe themselves more masculine and less feminine than straight women (Hypothesis 6). Participants received feedback on errors and reaction times after each block (e.g., given 10% errors or more: You committed many errors. (1978). The lines in the bars represent medians and bars indicate the range between 75th and 25th percentile. Hence, no item had to be excluded due to low item-specific homogeneity (Bortz and Dring, 2006). All items were suitable for factor analysis (item-specific KMO values >0.81; commonalities:0.540.83). But you cannot have the qualities of traditional masculinity without having the capacity for primordial masculinity. Steffens M. C., Jelenec P., Noack P. (2010). The overall model was statistically significant, (8) = 72.01, p < 0.001, Nagelkerke's R2 = 0.49. We introduce a new and brief scale, the Traditional Masculinity-Femininity (TMF) scale, designed to assess central facets of self-ascribed masculinity-femininity. Only correlations with the Childhood Gender-Behavior Scale were high, which could be due to selective memory recall and hence reflect current gender-related self-assessment (see Bailey and Zucker, 1995) measured with the TMF. Confirming Hypotheses 2, 3, and 4, the TMF turned out to be the best gender-related instrument for differentiating straight and gay men at first and second measurement and lesbians and straight women compared to all other scales used in Study 2 (see Table Table4).4). In order to test whether lesbians, bisexual, and straight women would be classified correctly based on the different measures of masculinity-femininity, we carried out an ordinal regression analysis. However, in contrast to the first measurement the GEPAQ-F was not able to discriminate between both groups, Mgay = 4.02, Mstraight = 3.68, t(35) = 1.83, p = 0.075. Participants were recruited at the University of Jena, the Technical University of Berlin, and on lesbian/gay dating websites. There was a steep decline of explained variance from factor one (61%) to factor two (12%). Studies 12 used known-groups approaches (participants differing in gender and sexual orientation) to validate the scale and provide evidence of its convergent validity. Nosek B. In sum, this indicates that the TMF measures something fundamental regarding gender-related self-assessment. Masculinity - Wikipedia However, it could also mean that the scales do not tap the most relevant aspects of the constructs on which gender differences continue to exist. We define "traditional masculinity" and "traditional femininity" as relatively enduring characteristics encompassing traits, appearances, interests, and behaviors that have traditionally been considered relatively more typical of women and men, respectively (adapting the definitions provided by Constantinople, ). Despite society's misconceptions about gender, men have more options than were previously realized. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). Similar to other scales (e.g., Personal Attributes Questionnaire, PAQ, by Spence et al., 1975), the BSRI appears to tap more specific constructs, often referred to as instrumentality/agency and expressivity/communion (e.g., Fiske et al., 2002; Abele and Wojciszke, 2007), rather than masculinity and femininity in general. We validated the TMF in various ways. Hence, we assumed gender-typical masculinity-femininity self-ratings to be connected to more current contact with straight women and men and less current contact with lesbians and gay men (Hypothesis 11). In the second step, they were invited to a speech lab to provide recordings of spontaneous spoken speech and text reading as well as a photograph of their face. In order to avoid artificially high scores obtained with very long scales, internal consistency was estimated based on the average reaction time difference in reaction to each of the eight stimuli. In fact, few people may realize that biological sex is different from ones gender performance. Moreover, higher femininity in women was associated with higher voice pitch features (average, variability, and range) and higher masculinity in men was connected to less contact to gay men. In contrast, one contact measure showed a significant correlation for men but not for women: The less contact men reported to gay men, the more masculine they rated themselves on the TMF (r = 0.35). Further, masculine everyday behavior also differs by sexual orientation because of lesbians' globally more masculine gender-role self-concept, but a direct effect of masculine behavior on sexual orientation remained. The other dimension was self vs. others. The stimuli on that dimension were synonyms of the superordinate concepts (me, self vs. you, others; in German: Ich, Selbst; Du, Andere). and transmitted securely. We assumed the TMF to outperform other gender-related scales when predicting sexual orientation of women and men (Hypothesis 8). Furthermore, the TMF was connected to criterion characteristics, such as judgments as straight by laypersons for the whole sample, voice pitch characteristics for the female subsample, and contact to gay men for the male subsample, and outperformed other gender-related scales. Given their scores on a Kinsey-like scale, they were divided into three groups of 47 straight women (Kinsey scores: 67), 32 bisexual women (35), and 47 lesbians (12). In other words: what does a score of 4 mean? In detail, stimuli were presented that represent the concepts self, others, feminine, and masculine. The evidence for high incremental validity in predicting women's sexual orientation from Study 1 could not be replicated nor extended to men. TMF: 1-7, Traditional Masculinity-Femininity; GEPAQ: 1-5, German Extended Personality Attributes Questionnaire; GRB: 1-6, Gender-Role Behavior; and CGRB: 1-5, Childhood Gender-Role Behavior. One belief about lesbians and gay men is that they transgress gender roles, on average (e.g., Kite and Whitley, 1996). However, instead of using only these two items, we constructed a scale that can be tested empirically with regard to its reliability and validity. sharing sensitive information, make sure youre on a federal Additionally, we are positive that the TMF can be used in different countries and cultures because of its global level of measurement. Sample adequacy was confirmed by a Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) criterion of 0.87. The Supplementary Material for this article can be found online at: http://journal.frontiersin.org/article/10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00956, National Library of Medicine Only the GRB-F was found to predict women's sexual orientation. A term commonly used to describe a broad range of men's traits and behaviour, it includes things like . Over time, aggression in males shifts to asserting power over another, particularly when masculinity is threatened (Pellegrini & Bartini, 2001). All participants did the self-masculine/others-feminine task first. We introduce the TMF scale, an instrument for measuring gender-role self-concept. Participants were instructed to indicate on a 5-point Likert-type scale (1 = non independent/not emotional, 5 = very independent/very emotional) the extent to which they felt each item described them. Measurement of masculinity ideologies: a (Critical) review. One might suggest that all other scales in addition to the TMF used in the present research should also be submitted to factor analyses. As a result, masculinity is not "hard-wired" due to genes and hormones, and it is not essential nor inescapable for boys and men. Steffens M. C., Kirschbaum M., Glados P. (2008). According to a graphical scree-plot analysis, a one-factor solution was confirmed. Notably, confirming Hypothesis 6, correlations with an implicit measure of one's self-feminine vs. self-masculine association were in the expected order of magnitude (e.g., Hofmann et al., 2005) and higher than those of the implicit measure with any of the trait or behavior self-ratings. Each item was represented very well by this factor (loadings >0.73). Predicting spontaneous Big Five behavior with Implicit Association Tests, Gender at Work: A Social-Psychological Perspective, Reflective and impulsive determinants of social behavior, Attitudes toward gays and lesbians among undergraduate social work students. Mediation of the relation between GRB and sexual orientation by the TMF.